PCAR Annotated LONG

Participatory and Collaborative

Applied

Research Methods

Annotated Bibliography

Prepared by

Lee Williams

University of Tennessee

May 1995

Specialty Exam II

Political Economy/

Participatory Sociology

Participatory and Collaborative

Applied Research Methods

Annotated Bibliography

Table of Contents

Introduction to Collaborative and Participatory Research........................................... 1

Linking Research and the Community.......................................................................... 4

Academic Perspectives....................................................................................... 4

Community Perspectives.................................................................................... 6

Field Research Models.................................................................................................. 7

Critique of Traditional Research Models......................................................... 7

Action Research................................................................................................. 9

Applied Research............................................................................................... 11

Case Study Research......................................................................................... 13

Collaborative Research...................................................................................... 14

Critical Research................................................................................................ 16

Ethnography........................................................................................................ 18

Evaluation........................................................................................................... 21

Feminist Research.............................................................................................. 22

Participatory Research....................................................................................... 24

Social Geography................................................................................................ 29

Ways of Knowing—The Role of Indigenous Knowledge and Culture......................... 30

Working With Differences—Class, Ethnicity, Gender, and Culture........................... 34

Role of the Researcher.................................................................................................. 37

Ethics and Human Subjects in Social Research............................................................ 40

Developing a Collaborative Research Project—Research Designs........................... 42

Research Tools and Techniques—How We Do It . . ................................................... 45

General................................................................................................................ 45

Documentary Sources and Public Records....................................................... 47

Focus Groups...................................................................................................... 49

Interviewing........................................................................................................ 51

Oral History........................................................................................................ 53

Power Structure Research................................................................................. 55

Surveys................................................................................................................ 58

Visual................................................................................................................... 59

Using What You Find...................................................................................................... 61

Data Analysis...................................................................................................... 61

Putting the Message Out................................................................................... 64

Case Studies................................................................................................................... 66

International........................................................................................................ 66

National............................................................................................................... 69

Resources....................................................................................................................... 72

University-Based Collaborative Research Centers......................................... 72

Introduction to Collaborative and Participatory Research

Brown, David L. and Rajesh Tandon. 1983. "Ideology and Political Economy in Inquiry: Action Research and Participatory Research." Journal of Applied Behavioral Science and Technology. 19(3): 277-94.

This article examines two traditions of applied behavioral science inquiry: action and participatory research. The focus is on the differences between these two research approaches. The article is organized into several sections: (1) describes examples of action and participatory research; (2) considers the impacts of values and ideologies on inquiry between the two research approaches; (3) analyses the political economy of inquiry; (4) describes phases of inquiry and differences between strategies related to differences in ideology and political economy; and (5) analyzes the implications of those differences for the diffusion of the two traditions and their future interaction.

Cancian, Francesca M. and Cathleen Armstead. 1992. "Participatory Research." In Encyclopedia of Sociology. pp. 1427-1432.

This short article captures main points of participatory research. The authors analyze and describe five characteristics of participatory research: participation by the people being studied, inclusion of popular knowledge, a focus on power and empowerment, consciousness-raising and education of the participants, and political action. In sum, the paper provides a brief history of the field and its relations to other fields and identifies current issues within participatory research.

Collette, Will. 1984. "Research for Organizing." In Roots to Power: A Manual for Grassroots Organizing. Lee Staples (ed.). Praeger: New York. pp. 142-51.

This brief article, written for community researchers, provides an introduction to social research, the reasons for doing research, types of research, and how to utilize the research findings. The final section provides a number of tips for community research for organizing. Excellent introductory article for novice community researchers.

Fals-Borda, Orlando. 1982. "Participatory Research and Rural Social Change." Journal of Rural Cooperation, X(1): 25-39.

Popular science (or folk culture) is an emergent type of knowledge production attempting to make the latter politically dynamic as required in social development efforts. The common people have a scientific apparatus no less valuable than that of other social classes or groups, although its rationality may not be Cartesian. Participatory research is seen as a attempt to understand and go deep into people's cultures with a view of promoting radical social changes in society. The author finds that this also requires changes in traditional conceptions of methodology in social science and offers in its place methodology based on a high standard of authenticity and commitment on the part of the researchers, systematic restitution of information to the people, an action reflection rythym, a modest attitude and dialogic techniques designed to break the subject-object relationship. The impact if mass culture and the roloe of the region and organic intellectuals are also emphasized in the discussion.

Hall, Budd L. 1992. "From Margins to Center? The Development and Purpose of Participatory Research." American Sociologist. 23(4): 15-28.

This article documents the liberatory stream of participatory research as experienced through the activities and connections of one of the key figures in the early development and dissemination of these ideas. The author traces the developments in Tanzania in the early 1970's, through the establishment of the original Participatory Research Network to the elaboration of theoretical and political debates. He highlights the formulation and elaboration of participatory research as a contribution to social change in a variety of settings. The article includes discussions of the feminist advance, the question of voice and the relationship of power to knowledge in transformative practice and contains an extensive and historically valuable bibliography.

International Council for Adult Education. 1982. Participatory Research: An Introduction. Society for Participatory Research: Asia and New Delhi.

An excellent introduction to both the theory and practice of participatory research. This short book begins with an overview of the theoretical frameworks, contains brief discussions of major debates, and finally illustrates the theory with schematic overviews and examples of participatory research.

Park, Peter. 1993 "What is Participatory Research? A Theoretical and Methodological Perspective." In Peter Park, Mary Brydon-Miller, Budd Hall, and Ted Jackson (eds.). Voices of Change: Participatory Research in the United States and Canada. OISE Press: Ontario Institute for Education.

This book chapter presents an overview of what participatory research aims to accomplish. In doing this the author describes how a participatory research project is carried out in principle by examining key moments in this process. Park provides a solid general theoretical overview and framework for participatory research. He discusses the production of and types of knowledge, an analysis of the participatory research process, questions of validity, and the recovery of popular knowledge.

Rahman, Muhammad Anisur. 1993. People's Self Development: Perspectives on Participatory Action Research. Zed Books: London.

This book presents eminent author's reflections on development through local initiatives by people themselves, what he terms "self-development," and how to promote such development. Key issues include: what does the notion of self reliance mean; an approach to participatory research in terms of the self emancipation of the popular classes; the importance of knowledge relations in the domination of people; an examination of the rationality of collectively generated popular knowledge; and an outline of an alternative development paradigm rooted in a perspective that sees fulfillment of the human urge for creative engagement as the primary task in development efforts.

Tandon, Rajesh. 1993. "The Historical Roots and Contemporary Urges in Participatory Research." Participatory Research International (PRIA) Newsletter, December, 1993.

This brief explication traces participatory research from an alternative paradigm to its present status as a viable method especially as relates to development. Cites seven contemporary trends influencing participatory research: new politics of science; linkage between ideology and education; feminist perspectives; ecological movement; developments in rural and indigenous peoples relations; new paradigm research; and the growth in applied participatory action research work.

Wadsworth, Yolanda. 1984. Do It Yourself Social Research. Victorian Council of Social Service and Melbourne Family Care Association: Melbourne, Australia.

An easy to read, step by step account, written primarily for lay researchers this book describes an approach to community research for beginning researchers. The approach is based on participatory methods which puts the production of knowledge back into the hands of everyday people. the volume addresses issues such as reasons for the research, how to get started, ways of finding information, generating data, analyzing data, and ways of getting the findings across. Includes several case studies, a translation of common research language, and bibliography.

Linking Research and the Community

Academic Perspectives

The American Sociologist. Winter, 1992, Vol. 23(4) and Spring, 1993, Vol. 24(1).

Two special issues of AS are devoted to participatory research edited by long-time practitioners, Randy Stoecker and Edna Bonacich. The numerous articles address all aspects of participatory research, includes discussion of why participatory research, models, case studies, and participatory research techniques providing excellent overviews of each. Between the two volumes are 9 case studies on wide-ranging, participatory research projects including high school students as researchers, community development in low income neighborhoods, immigrant women and participatory research, community health, and church-based organizing, among others.

Cassara, Beverly B. 1987. "The How and Why of Preparing Graduate Students to Carry Out Participatory Research." Educational Considerations, Vol. 14, Nos. 2 & 3, Spring/Fall: 39-42.

This short article offers cogent reasons for why we practice participatory research and presents ideas on how to go about preparing graduate students to go do participatory research. Cassara offers a description and explanation of the methodology, and two brief case studies. Excellent article to lay a foundation for those who are teaching others to do participatory research.

Convergence. 1981, Vol. 14(3) and 1988, Vol. 21(3).

Two special editions of journal deal with the definition of the field of participatory research and focus on the central debates among participatory researchers. Contains extensive bibliographies and lists the Participatory Research Network. These two volumes provide an excellent overview of the historical and contemporary issues and strategies of participatory research.

Fals-Borda, Orlando and Muhammad Anisur Rahman (eds.). 1991. Action and Knowledge: Breaking the Monopoly with Participatory Action Research. Apex Press: New York.

This volume is a collection of case studies and theoretical essays on the use of participatory research in communities world-wide. The editors provide an excellent overview of the different contexts and strategies used in participatory research. The authors use and describe different participatory research methods, but all share in common an approach to development which actively involves the people in generating their own knowledge, about their own condition, and how it can be changed.

Hall, Budd L., Arthur Gillette, and Rajesh Tandon (eds.). 1982. Creating Knowledge: A Monopoly? Participatory Research in Development. Society for Participatory Research in Asia and New Delhi: New Delhi.

Park, Peter, Mary Brydon-Miller, Budd Hall, and Ted Jackson (eds.). 1993. Voices of Change: Participatory Research in the United States and Canada. OISE Press: Ontario Institute for Education.

This volume describes a grassroots approach to empowering people for democratic change. It explains participatory research using exemplary case studies on community organizing, feminist theory, and ecological movements from a wide range of locations in North America. This book provides a solid overview of what participatory research is, the role of knowledge in the process, the development of participatory research professionally, and case studies using participatory research methods.

The Netherlands Study and Development Centre for Adult Education. 1981. Research for the People, Research by the People: An Introduction to Participatory Research. Linkoping University Report # LiU-PEK-R-70.

The papers included in this volume were all presented at the International Forum on Participatory Research in Ljubljana, Yugoslavia, in April 1980. This meeting was the culmination of a stream of activity which can be identified concretely as having begun in Tanzania in the early 1970's with the work of a group of researchers who began to experiment with research which consciously involved the community in the entire research process. The volume presents theoretical papers and practical case studies. The papers address issues such as the role of the researcher, the concept of grassroots, base group or organic intellectuals, the nature of participation itself, the relationship of participatory research to historical materialism, and the importance of the creation of popular knowledge.

The Netherlands Study and Development Centre for Adult Education. 1984. Research for the People, Research by the People: Selected papers from the International Forum on Participatory Research in Ljubljana, Yugoslavia, 1980. Linkoping University Report # LiU-PEK-R-63.

This book is intended to present to teachers and students involved in adult education and development work, the theory and the practical implications of participatory research. The papers in the volume deal with issues such as the role of the researcher, the nature of participation, popular knowledge, and the relationship between historical materialism and participatory research. The papers represent both theoretical and practical aspects of participatory research and represent nearly all regions of the world through case studies.

Stoecker, Randy and David Beckwith. 1992. "Advancing Toledo's Neighborhood Movement Through Participatory Action Research: Integrating Activist and Academic Approaches." Clinical Sociology Review, 17: 198-213.

This paper first develops the methodology of participatory action research as a research process originating from community-defined needs, involving community members in conducting the research, and leading to community-based action. Within this research model, the authors discuss the difficulty of integrating the roles of activist and researcher. Secondly, the paper describes the outcomes of the coordinated efforts of an activist academic and a professional community organizer who have engaged in a series of research projects to increase the organizational effectiveness and urban redevelopment capacity of community-based development organizations in Toledo, OH. Thirdly, the paper evaluates their research project, discussing how the problem of integrating activist and researcher roles was addressed.

Community Perspectives

Merrifield, Juliet. 1979. "Putting Scientists in Their Place: Participatory Research in Environmental and Occupational Health." Highlander Center Working Paper. (Available from Highlander Research and Education Center, 1959 Highlander Way, New Market, TN, 37820.)

This short booklet provides an example of community participatory research organized around the issue of toxic waste. Participatory research is seen as a way of systematizing the people's knowledge. In this case statistical data was gathered to document the increase in birth defects and environmentally related diseases in the Southeast. The author also reviews some of the issues of control over the production and use of scientific knowledge.

Perkins, Douglas D. and Abraham Wandersman. 1990. "You'll Have to Work to Overcome Our Suspicions: The Benefits and Pitfalls of Research with Community Organizations." Social Policy. Summer: pp. 32-41.

This article discusses the different role constraints and value conflicts between research practitioners including community members, leaders, organizers and agency staff on one hand, and academic researchers on the other. The authors analyze the benefits and pitfalls of the partnership between academic researchers and the community. The article provides several brief case studies of community and academic research partnerships in action. Perkins and Wandersman conclude that even given the pitfalls of such a research strategy the many practical and empirical benefits of such arrangements greatly outweigh the negatives, and further, that with planning and foresight by academic researchers many of the pitfalls can be avoided.

Sclove, Richard E. 1995. “Putting Science to Work in Communities.” Chronicle of Higher Education.” March 31: B1-B3.

This article describes a low-cost method for doing learning on local, urgent social problems. Dutch universities, for over 20 years, have established a network of over 50 public “science shops” that conduct coordinate and summarize research on social and technological issues in response to specific questions and concerns posed by community groups, public-interest organizations, local governments, and workers. Each shop’s paid staff members and student interns screen questions and refer challenging problems to faculty members and students. The science shops provide answers to several thousand inquiries each year. Author describes origins of science shops, how centers work, what sorts of results are generated, and how such a system may be able to work in the US.

Routledge, Rodney. 1993. "Grass Tip Consumer Policy Input." Community Development Journal, 28(2), April: 101-107.

This paper outlines how a community development process of participatory research was used in working with a small group of inner city unemployed people. Through this process, the participant researchers are able to clarify the macro issues shaping the reality of their lack of paid employment and then develop strategies to influence government policies. The paper concludes with an analysis of the issues and processes involved in using a participatory research approach. Some implications for policy making and service delivery that genuinely seeks to be consumer-based are noted.

Field Research Models

Critique of Traditional Research Models

Fonow, Mary M. and Judith A. Cook. (eds.). 1991. Beyond Methodology: Feminist Scholarship as Lived Research. Indiana University Press: Bloomington.

This book offers a collection of papers on the philosophies and methods of feminist research. The authors all raise key issues for consideration in all forms of research. The analysis focuses on feminist methodology in the field of sociology by surveying the techniques used in recent research concerning gender-related topics as well as feminist analyses of epistemological assumptions underlying the conduct of inquiry. The authors povide a critique and reformulation of standard research practice by using innovative methodological approaches including, visual techniques, conversational and textual analysis, and analysis of spontaneous events.

Six papers on participatory research emphasize the democratic relations between researcher and the community, the necessity for social transformation, and the subordination of academic interests. These are followed by seven case studies which illustrate the premises discussed in other articles and the difficulties and rewards of participatory research. Part one of the book provides an overview of the many critiques levied at mainstream social science research. While part two explains alternative strategies through case studies.

Lather, Patti. 1986. "Research as Praxis." Harvard Educational Review. 56(3): 257-77.

Reason, Peter. 1988. Human Inquiry in Action: Developments in New Paradigm Research. Sage Publication: Newbury Park, CA.

This volume is a collection of papers on a variety of collaborative research methods. Articles identify issues, problems, and examples of participatory research. Several authors provide detailed critiques of standard social science research. Carries on and furthers earlier work (see below).

Reason, Peter and John Rowan (eds.). 1981. Human Inquiry: A Sourcebook of New Paradigm Research. John Wiley and Sons: London.

This book covers the philosophy, methodology, practice, and prospects of new paradigm research. New paradigm research is based on experience and collaboration, doing research with people rather than on them, and involves working with people so that they may discover some truth about themselves. Contains materials collected from researchers pursuing similar paths in Europe, North America, Africa, and India, as well as reprints of relevant classics. Numerous articles provide cogent critiques of the dominant research paradigm in the social sciences.

Roth, Julius. 1975. "Hired Hand Research." Fist Fights in the Kitchen. Gierge Lewis (ed.). Goodyear: Santa Monica, CA.

In this brief article Roth examines, quite truthfully, three case studies of hired hand research. Case one illustrates the real dimensions of hired hands doing observational counting research on ward patients in a mental hospital; faked counts, missed assignments, mad-up results. Case two addresses the inconsistencies found in the coding of data among different members of a hired research team leading to gross inconsistencies in the research. Case three addresses the problems inherent in a misconstructed interview schedule question. The second part of the article analyzes these problems and the ethics involved in social research done with hired hands and offers solutions to the hired hand mentality of research.

Tandon, Rajesh. 1982. "A Critique of Monopolistic Research," Creating Knowledge: A Monopoly? Participatory Research in Development. Budd Hall, Arthur Gillette, and Rajesh Tandon (eds.) . Society for Participatory Research in Asia, New Delhi: New Delhi. pp. 79-84.

Tandon describes the major characteristics of the dominant research paradigm in the social sciences and provides a critiques of this method of research. The dominant mode of research has four major features: (a) the purpose of the research is to generate knowledge for knowledge sake; (b) the methods for research should be totally objective, with a controlled research situation; (c) manipulation of symbols and concepts are the main ingredients of knowledge; (d) the research entails communication of findings to other professional colleagues. Critiques of this method take the forms of absolutist, purist, rationalist, and elitist.

Action Research

Argryis, Chris, Robert Putnam, and Diana McLain Smith. 1985. Action Science: Concepts, Methods and Skills for Research. Josey-Bass: San Francisco, CA.

This volume offers a methodology for researching social systems in ways to gain more valid data while treating those researched as mature and responsible adults. In effect it is equivalent to a form of participatory action research, with a particular emphasis on generating more valid information.

Carr, Wilfred and Stephen Kemmis. 1986. Becoming Critical: Education, Knowledge and Action Research. Falmer Press: London.

Carr and Kemmis provide a strongly-put case for participatory action research. This form of research is cyclic, is done by the researched, and incorporates critical theory. The cycle is: plan, act, observe, reflect, plan. . . . start again. The purpose of the book is to offer a rationale for classroom teachers to do their own research and curriculum theorizing. The authors believe that teachers have a special role as researchers and that the most plausible way to construe educational research is as a form of critical social science. The book provides a good overview of the theory and practice of a critical social science based on action research methods for all types of educators.

Flora, Cornelia and Jan L. Flora. n.d. "Quality of Life Concerns and Sustainable Agriculture: Overview of Useful Methods for Action Research." Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University and John Allen, University of Nebraska.

This excellent outline offers some of the basic techniques for gathering social data in rural areas and the methodologies which drive the collection of said data. Fantastic introductory piece for any qualitative researcher. Very basic, straight forward, easy to understand explication of qualitative methods as they apply to action research.

French, Wendell and Cecil H. Bell. 1990. Organisation Development: Behavioural Science Interventions for Organisational Improvement (Fourth Edition). Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

One of the bibles on organization development. Is set firmly within an action research framework and provides a good mix of theory, practice, and history.

Human Relations. 1993, 46(2).

This special issue of journal devoted to action research edited by Max Elden and Rupert F. Chisholm. The volume provides several articles on theoretical and methodological aspects of action research along with case studies based on action research.

Kemmis, Stephen and Robin McTaggart. 1988. The Action Research Planner (Third Edition). Deakin University: Victoria, Australia.

The authors teach action research to educators at Deakin University. They are probably one of the important reasons why education is an active discipline in the use of action research in Australia. Their approach is participatory and critical providing a basic overview of action research methods and theory, along with workbook-like chapters which provide systematic approaches to action research, also includes several case studies.

Kemmis, Stephen and Robin McTaggart. 1988. Action Research Reader (Third Edition). Deakin University Press: Victoria, Australia.

Readings from earlier editions along with new selections provide a historical picture of the development of action research through the work of some of the classical exponents along with the range of perspectives in action research. Readings are organized into three sections: origins and development; international perspectives including North America, United Kingdom, continental Europe, and Developing Nations on the theory and practice of action research; and recent developments in action research in Australia.

McNiff, Jean with Jack Whitehead and Moira Laidlaw. 1992. Creating a Good Social Order Through Action Research. Hyde Publications Brancsome, Dorset.

The authors and other colleagues engage in a collaborative inquiry to show how a community can develop through dialogue. The book address current critical issues within the action research movement, and offers ideas about the generative transformational nature of educational inquiry. The author's widen the debate about the nature of action research for personal and professional development.

McNiff, Jean. 1992. Action Research: Principles and Practice. Routledge: London.

The author explains the philosophies and practices of action research clearly, illustrating her explanations with case studies of recent projects organized from Bath University. The book reviews current trends in action research and examines key concepts in its development. The book urges teachers to develop and improve their own classroom practice by taking education research out of the confines of academia and conducting it themselves. McNiff illustrates that there are widely divergent views on the application and contribution of action research for educational thought.

Whyte, William Foote (ed.). 1991. Participatory Action Research. Sage: Newbury Park, CA.

Author is a highly regarded field researcher for over 50 years. He tells how he has plied his craft over that time. The book addresses the author's failures and successes in studying street corner society in Boston, oil companies in Oklahoma and Venezuela, restaurants in Chicago, worker cooperatives in Spain, factories in New York State, and villages in Peru. With the goal of taking the reader into the field with him, Whyte discusses and dissects the chief tools of a field researcher: participant observation and the semi-structured interview.

Applied Research

Abreo, Desmond A, 1983. From Development Worker to Activist: A Case Study in Participatory Training. DEEDS: Mangalore, Karnataka

This book is a case study of training held for the members of a development organization in South India by the Development Education Service. The method used in the training programs is aimed at being totally participatory. The trainees evolve the syllabus, and through various exercises, arrive at the insights needed for authentic development work. The book describes this process as it took place in four weeks spaced out over the course of a year, and through the actual work of the trainees. The methods described include case studies, group and individual research, reflection on actual development work, role-plays, and simulation exercises. This book is aimed at development workers in applied settings. Most of the sections contain the actual summaries made by the trainees themselves of their discussions. Additional papers given to the trainees for their reflection and group discussion are included where appropriate.

Freidenberg, Judith. 1991. "Participatory Research and Grassroots Development: A Case Study from Harlem. City and Society, 5(1), June: 64-75.

This article documents an anthropologist's experiences in an applied research and development project with elderly minorities in the inner city. The main question addressed in the report is how, and to what extent, is collaboration between the anthropologist, professional colleagues, funding agencies, informants and community groups conducive to grassroots development within the context of the political economy in which the program is being developed. Focusing on the natural history of the project, this study illustrates some of the complexities involved. The implications for participatory research, planned social change, and styles of community development emerge from an understanding of the project as a social process.

Frideres, James S. 1992. A World of Communities: Participatory Research Perspectives. Captus University Publications: North York, Ontario, Canada.

Emerging from the First International Conference on Participatory Research held in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, this book provides a unique, in-depth analysis of the community participation strategies employed to carry out a variety of applied research projects. Beginning with a critical review of the concept "participatory research," the editor takes the reader to nine different countries where researchers have utilized the process of involving communities in the resolution of their own concerns. Whether focusing on health care issues, distance education, or community reaction to relocation, the articles demonstrate the advantages of public participation in the research process. Students, academics, and practicing professional will find this book an essential resource for understanding participatory research.

Miller, William L. and Benjamin Crabtree. 1994. "Clinical Research." In Denzin, Norman K. and Yvonna S. Lincoln (eds.). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA. pp. 340-352.

The guiding premise of this article is that the questions emerging from the clinical experience frame conversations and determine research designs. The chapter is structured around three goals: creating an open research space that celebrates qualitative and critical approaches to the clinical world; providing the tools necessary for discovering and confirming clinical stories and knowledge within this space; and identifying and describing the means for sharing the stories and knowledge. The emphasis is on the clinical text of Western biomedicine and the particular subtext of the patient-physician clinical encounter, but the discussion is easily transferable to other clinical contexts, such as nursing care, education, and organizational management.

Rebach, Howard M. and John G. Bruhn. 1991. Handbook of Clinical Sociology. Plenum Press.

This book provides a wide-ranging compilation of articles on clinical sociology giving definition to a significant but often invisible tradition in American sociology. The field of clinical sociology is broadly defined by the authors as "the application of sociological perspectives to facilitate change." Its practitioners are primarily change agents, rather than scholars or researchers, who work with a client, be that an individual, family, group, organization, or community to facilitate change. The volume is divided into four parts: (1) an outline of the history and definition of the field of clinical sociology; (2) the general themes and practice of clinical sociology; (3) the application of clinical sociology in specific settings; and (4) work with special populations (e.g. people in a mental hospital).

Singer, Merrill. 1994. "Community-centered Praxis: Toward an Alternative Non-dominative Applied Anthropology. Human Organization, 53(4): 336-344.

Applied anthropologists have long grappled with the problem of determining their appropriate relationship with "target" communities. Recently Johannsen (1992) has proposed the developement of a post-modern applied anthropology that would neither impose solutions nor even define community problems in need of response, but would instead use its skills to foster indigenous community initiatives and self representations. This paper stongly supports Johannsens goal of developing what is termed by this author as a nonimperialsit praxis, but questions whether this goal can be achieved by incorporating the framework of postmodernism. An alternative approach —community-centered praxis— is proposed and illustrated through the case of the Hartford Needle Exchange Project.

Case Study Research

Hamel, Jacques. 1993. Case Study Methods. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.

This book provides a good introduction to understanding, researching, and doing case studies in the social sciences and related fields. In this brief monograph, the author outlines several differing traditions of case study research from the Chicago School of sociology, to the anthropological case studies of Malinowski, to the French Le Play School tradition. Hamel shows how each school developed, changed, and has been practiced over time up to the present.

Stake, Robert B. 1994. "Case Studies." In Denzin, Norman K. and Yvonna S. Lincoln (eds.). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA. pp. 236-247.

The name case study is emphasized by this author to draw attention to the question of, what specifically can be learned from the single case? That is the driving epistemological question of this chapter. The article emphasizes designing the study to optimize understanding of the case rather than generalizations beyond. The chapter begins with an overview of intrinsic and instrumental interests in cases. This is followed by sections which deal with the study of the particular and what we can learn from a particular case. The final section deals with methodological issues including case selection, sampling, and ethics, followed by a summary.

Yin, Robert K. 1994. Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Second Edition. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.

This best selling book has been carefully revised, updated and expanded. Materials include a discussion on the debate in evaluation between qualitative and quantitative research, the role of theory in doing good case studies, triangulation as a rationale for multiple sources of evidence, and the inclusion of program logic models as another analytic option. In addition the text has many updated examples, including ones dealing with international trade and world economy. The volume addresses designing case study research, conducting case study research, analyzing the evidence, and composing the case study report.

Yin, Robert K. 1993. Applications of Case Study Research. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.

This volume provides students and research investigators with extensive applications of actual case study research, as well as discussions on how case study research can be applied to broad areas of inquiry. The author demonstrates how to integrate theoretical concerns into exploratory case studies, how to select units of analysis, how to define data collection needs, and how to establish rival hypotheses. The book also examines the use of case studies as an evaluative tool, and covers distinctions among different qualitative research studies.

Collaborative Research

Curtis, Karen A. 1989. "Help From Within: Participatory Research in a Low-Income Neighborhood." Urban Anthropology, 18(2): 203-217.

This article examines the role of ethnography as a resource in the process of needs assessment in a multi-ethnic, low-income section of Philadelphia, PA. The goals of the project were to analyze the relationship between the targeted neighborhood's socioeconomic characteristics and human service environment and to work with neighborhood leaders in developing an action plan based on the research findings. A number of considerations regarding collaborative research and practice are raised. In the case discussed in this paper, the producers of knowledge were anthropologists and community members, while the consumers were funders, planners, and local government. Collaboration with area agency leaders produced information useful to the community and involved community actors directly in research and planning activities as a tool for social change.

Delgado-Gaitan, Concha. 1993. "Researcher Change and Changing the Researcher." Harvard Educational Review. Vol. 63 No. 4, Winter: 389-411.

In this volume the author describes her experience as a researcher in Carpinteria, a predominantly Mexican-American Community in CA. After collecting data about family literacy practices through traditional ethnographic methods, she began meeting with the parents regularly to share her findings and solicit input. These meetings became a turning point for the researcher, redirecting the focus of her research from literacy activities to the process of community empowerment. The situation challenged the researcher to redefine her role and this is the story of how it happened.

Nyden, Phillip and Wim Wiewel. 1992. "Collaborative Research: Harnessing the Tensions Between Researcher and Practitioner. In The American Sociologist, Winter: 43-55.

The impetus for this article comes out of the authors research work with community organizations and their role in helping to set up the Policy Research Action Group (PRAG), aimed at encouraging stronger links between researchers and community leaders in and around Chicago, IL. The purpose of the article is to examine their recent Chicago experiences in developing a collaborative research model that more effectively links researchers and community activists together. The analysis grows from the authors own experience in completing social change-oriented, community-based research, it also reflects observations and comments made by community activists and other academics throughout the four year research and action project. Article identifies their collaborative research model, discusses the relationship between academic researcher and community practitioner, and analyzes the roles of the academic, the community activist, and the granting agency in research for social change.

Reason, Peter. 1994. "Three Approaches to Participative Inquiry." In Denzin, Norman K. and Yvonna S. Lincoln. 1994. Handbook of Qualitative Research. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.

Reason investigates three approaches to research as participation: cooperative inquiry; participatory action research, and action research. Each approach is taken separately and the underlying assumptions and practice are set out, along with a flavor of the language and perspective of each. In later sections of the paper the author explores some of the similarities and differences in the approaches while making critical distinctions and comparisons of the three approaches. Finally an attempt is made to show how the approaches complement each other so that together they stand as the beginnings of a robust collaborative paradigm of research with people.

Reason, Peter (ed.). 1988. Human Inquiry in Action: Developments in New Paradigm Research. Sage Publication: Newbury Park, CA.

This volume is comprised of collected papers on a variety of collaborative research methods. The articles identify issues, problems, and examples of participatory research. Carries on and furthers earlier work (see below). The authors vision of research is a collaborative process, researching with and for people rather than on people. Research is not treated as a neutral, value-free process, but as always supporting and questioning something: not just a systematic quest for understanding, but as an action science which involves learning through risk-taking in life. The book presents an assessment of the state of theoretical and methodological debates in collaborative human research, and provides a summary of projects undertaken using collaborative methodologies.

Reason, Peter and John Rowan (eds.). 1981. Human Inquiry: A Sourcebook of New Paradigm Research. John Wiley and Sons: London.

Critical Research

Brodkey, Linda. 1987. "Writing Critical Ethnographic Narratives" Anthropology and Education Quarterly. Vol. 18: 67-76.

The author argues from a critical theory standpoint that the goal of ethnography is always the same: to help create the possibility of transforming such institutions as schools—through a process of negative critique. The article is directed at academics and uses works of Friere, Bowles and Gintis, Apple and Giroux as a basis. The piece provides discussion of "negative critique." Negative critique is at once a story of cultural hegemony and an argument for social change. Dominant hegemonic institutions (e.g., schools) must be changed. Brodkey offers a theory of this change or a theory of critical narrative. The gist of the article attempts to offer grounding for a position which assumes that third person narratives must revert to perceptual rather than conceptual narrative stances. Interesting discussion of ethnography rather than participatory research, but wants to move academic ethnography in a participatory direction.

Carr, Wilfred and Stephen Kemmis. 1986. Becoming Critical: Education, Knowledge and Action Research. Falmer Press: London.

Carr and Kemmis offer a strongly-put case for participatory action research. This form of research is cyclic, is done by the researched, and incorporates critical theory. The cycle is: plan, act, observe, reflect, plan. . . . start again. The purpose of the book is to offer a rationale for classroom teachers to do their own research and curriculum theorizing. The authors believe that teachers have a special role as researchers and that the most plausible way to construe educational research is as a form of critical social science. The book provides a good overview of the theory and practice of a critical social science based on action research methods for all types of educators.

Comstock, Don. 1982. "A Method for Critical Research." Knowledge and Values in Social and Educational Research. Edited by Eric Bredo and Walter Feinberg. Temple University Press: Philadelphia, PA. pp. 370-390.

The author develops a critical method of empirical research based on the Frankfurt school. The central argument in the paper is that the development of critical theories of contemporary social institutions requires a critical research method. Presents the distinctions between positive social science and critical social science which are relevant to research methods. Comstock's method for critical research follows seven steps: (1) identification of movements or social groups whose interests are progressive; (2) develop an interpretive understanding of the intersubjective meanings, values and motives held by all groups in the subject milieu; (3) study the historical development of the social conditions and the current social structures that constrain the participants actions and shape their understanding; (4) construct models to determine relations between social conditions, intersubjective interpretations of those conditions and participants actions; (5) elucidate the fundamental contradictions which are developing as a result of current actions based on ideologically frozen understandings; (6) participate in a program of critical education with the subjects; and (7) participate in a theoretically grounded program of action.

Kincheloe, Joe L. and Peter L. McLaren. 1994. "Rethinking Critical Theory and Qualitative Research." In Denzin, Norman K. and Yvonna S. Lincoln. 1994. Handbook of Qualitative Research. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.

The authors investigate four different emergent schools of critical social inquiry: the neo-Marxist theory of critical theory associated with the Frankfurt School; the genealogical writings of Michel Foucault; the practices of poststructuralist deconstruction associated most closely with Derrida; and postmodernist currents associated with Derrida, Foucault, Lyotard and others. Critical ethnography is seen to be influenced by all of these research strategies and traditions. Critical research is found to be best understood in the context of the empowerment of individuals. Inquiry which aspires to be critical, according to the author's must be connected to an attempt to confront the injustice of a particular society or sphere within the society. Research can then be seen as a transformative endeavor involving those who are traditionally the researched in the process itself. Article also provides a case study of workers as critical researchers. The final section offers directions for further consideration.

Lather, Patti. 1986. "Research as Praxis." Harvard Educational Review. 56(3): 257-77.

This article explores integrating research with political action. The author emphasizes critical theory and gives a brief overview and critique of three critical research paradigms: neo-Marxist ethnographies; feminist research; and participatory research. Lather defines the concept of research as praxis, examines it in the context of social science research, and discusses examples of empirical research designed to advance emancipatory knowledge. The primary objective of the article is to help researchers involve the researched in a democratized process of inquiry characterized by negotiation, reciprocity, and empowerment-research as praxis.

Morrow, Raymond A. and David D. Brown. 1994. Critical Theory and Methodology: Interpretive Structuralism as a Research Paradigm. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.

The authors outline and recount the development of the major tenets of critical theory from the Frankfurt School through to present day practitioners. Critical theory is exemplified through the work of influential adherents: Jurgen Habermas and Anthony Giddens. Beginning with a comprehensive and meticulous explication of critical theory and its history, the authors next discuss it within the context of a research program. The final section of the book is devoted to an examination of empirical methods within a critical theory framework. This volume provides an excellent overview of critical theory in general and of the necessity of empirical methods driven by a critical or emancipatory underpinnings.

Ethnography

Brodkey, Linda. 1987. "Writing Critical Ethnographic Narratives" Anthropology and Education Quarterly. Vol. 18: 67-76.

This article argues from a critical theory standpoint that the goal of ethnography is always the same: to help create the possibility of transforming such institutions as schools—through a process of negative critique. Article is directed at academics and uses works of Friere, Bowles and Gintis, Apple and Giroux as a basis. Provides discussion of "negative critique." Negative critique is at once a story of cultural hegemony and an argument for social change. Dominant hegemonic institutions (e.g., schools) must be changed. Brodkey offers a theory of this change or a theory of critical narrative. The gist of the article attempts to offer grounding for a position which assumes that third person narratives must revert to perceptual rather than conceptual narrative stances. Interesting discussion of ethnography rather than participatory research, but wants to move academic ethnography in a participatory direction.

Comaroff, John and Jean Comaroff. 1992. Ethnography and the Historical Imagination. Westview Press: Boulder, CO.

This volume argues for the continuing value of a historical anthropology in which ethnography and culture are revitalized. Provides a detailed analysis of the authors vision of what historical anthropology is. Ethnography in this volume is seen as a humanist examination into, mass culture and social movements, rapidly changing societies and state formations, nationalism and ethnicity, colonialism and other global processes, through the people who experience the lived reality at the bottom of these social constructs. To do ethnography in, and ethnographies of, the contemporary world order. Uses a number of case studies on the processes of social change and colonization in South Africa to delineate the ethnographic method. Book is divided into three parts. Essays in section one examine the interconnections between theory, ethnography, and historiography. Section to deals with dialectical systems of knowing and the creation of imaginative sociologies. Part three addresses the effects of colonialism and modernity in the lives of persons in developing nations.

Curtis, Karen A. 1989. "Help From Within: Participatory Research in a Low-Income Neighborhood." Urban Anthropology, 18(2): 203-217.

Hansen, Phillip Hansen and Alicja Muszynski. 1990. "Crisis in Rural Life and Crisis in Thinking: Directions for Critical Research. Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology. 27(1): 1-22.

Using both the resources of social theory and the results of primary empirical research this paper attempts to suggest new directions for critical research into rural life. It argues that this research should adopt a more explicitly hermeneutical and phenomenological focus which should put the perceptions, self-understandings and activities of rural people themselves, particularly as they strive to preserve their communities against outside forces, more fully at the center of the analysis. No longer should it be assumed that researchers and those studied must remain separate if research is to be truly scholarly and scientific. The paper addresses some of the possible theoretical, empirical, and historical implications of this argument.

Harrison, Faye V. (ed.). 1991. Decolonizing Anthropology: Moving Further Toward and Anthropology for Liberation. American Anthropological Association: Washington, D.C.

This volume of edited works reassesses and transcends the limitations of the radical and critical anthropology which has emerged over the last two decades. Critiques of the critiques and provocative synthesis provide the ground for mapping paths to an anthropology designed to promote equality- and justice-inducing social transformations. The perspectives expressed by the authors are those of activist anthropologists committed to and engaged in struggles against racist oppression, gender inequality, class disparities, and international patterns of exploitation and difference largely rooted in capitalist world development. The works in this volume draw upon four major streams of thought: (1) a neo-Marxist political economy; (2) experiments in interpretive and reflexive ethnographic analysis; (3) a feminism which underscores the impact race and class have upon gender; and (4) traditions of Black and other Third world scholarship which acknowledge the interplay between race and other forms of invidious difference.

Harrison, Faye V. 1991. "Ethnography as Politics." In Decolonizing Anthropology: Moving Further Toward and Anthropology for Liberation. Faye V. Harrison (ed.). American Anthropological Association: Washington, D.C. pp. 88-109.

Harrison discusses her fieldwork experience in the politically charged setting of Kingston, Jamaica during the late 1970's. The discussion is reflexive and presents an ethnography of ethnographic experience as a heuristic means of uncovering the salient political and ideological processes that conditioned the lived experiences of the studied population as well as those of the fieldworker herself. By analyzing her research agenda and goals, fieldwork techniques and problems, the local setting, and the larger context of Jamaican underdevelopment and Jamaican-American relations, the account illuminates the manner in which a multiple consciousness based on nationality, race, color, class and gender can be heightened by ethnographic experience and then in turn converted into a useful research instrument. Through this discussion the author attempts to contribute to the general understanding of the various roles ethnographers can play in decolonizing anthropology and in anti-imperialist struggle.

Singer, Merrill. 1994. "Community-centered Praxis: Toward an Alternative Non-dominative Applied Anthropology. Human Organization, 53(4): 336-344.

Thomas, Jim. 1992. Doing Critical Ethnography. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.

This innovative volume does not oppose conventional ethnography; rather it offers a style of thinking about the direct relationship between knowledge, society and political action. The author defines the rules and guidelines for a praxis-oriented ethnographic tradition. This tradition is viewed as both ideologically engaged and scientifically valid. In this short volume the author outlines the various types of critical ethnography and explains the major theoretical and methodological practices within each. He argues for a critical ethnography based on good empirical science.

Whitehead, Tony Larry and Mary Ellen Conway. (eds.). 1986. Self, Sex, and Gender in Cross-Cultural Fieldwork. University of Illinois Press: Urbana, IL.

This book is about the systemic relationship between the experience of doing cross-cultural fieldwork and the fieldworker's sense of gender self. Each chapter is written by an anthropologist, although the book is not for anthropologists only. The volume contributes directly to two emerging areas of interest: the inclusion of self in professional reports on fieldwork and the impact of the fieldworker's sex and gender identity on fieldwork processes, and of fieldwork on the fieldworker's view of gender and gender self-identity. The theme of the book is the influence of self, sex and gender on the fieldworker's adjustment to the field setting, on information gathering, and on data interpretation. As a consequence the book is organized into three sections: (1) Self, Sex, Gender and Field Adjustment; (2) Sex, Gender, and Information Gathering; and (3) Self, Gender, and Interpretation. As a way of furthering dialogue, the volume concludes with a chapter which interprets the contributions of the various essays to the five views of female writers cited within.

Von Maanen, John. (ed.). 1995. Representation in Ethnography. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.

Recently the function of an ethnographers work as simple cultural description has been challenged by feminists, critical theorists, post-structuralists and others. The result is that ethnographic texts have been deconstructed for their origins, biases, and literary devices resulting in a period of heightened methodological self consciousness and concern for reflexivity among ethnographers across disciplines. This book chronicles these debates and their resultant changes in the practice of contemporary ethnography. The contributors cover such topics as fieldnotes, the role of description, narratives, humor, acknowledgments, the relationship between ethnography and other forms of writing, and alternative means of presenting ethnographic work.

Evaluation

Craig, Dorothy. 1978. Hip Pocket Guide to Planning and Evaluation. University Associates: San Diego, CA.

Intended for the lay reader, this is a clear exposition of a change-oriented approach to evaluation. In workbook format, it is readable and systematic enough to follow in step by step fashion if necessary. It is a good introduction to evaluation for practitioners.

Greene, Jennifer C. 1994. "Qualitative Program Evaluation: Practice and Promise." In Denzin, Norman K. and Yvonna S. Lincoln. 1994. Handbook of Qualitative Research. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.

This article provides an overview of the major approaches to program evaluation: post-positivist, pragmatist, interpretivist, and critical. Also provides background on the history of qualitative evaluation research and justifications for its validation as a legitimate method of evaluation. The authors identify several critical dimensions of qualitative evaluation practice: case study methods for framing the research; qualitative methods for meaning construction; the presence of self in the research; and to seek through the work to augment practical program understanding. Finally the continuing challenges facing qualitative evaluation of programs are identified.

International Participatory Research Network. 1988. Report of International Forum on Participatory Evaluation. International Participatory Research Network: New Delhi, India.

The International Forum on Participatory Evaluation was held in Delhi from March 1-5, 1988. The report attempts to capture the spirit and intensity of the discussion around issues related to participatory evaluation. The report is divided in to three sections. The first part describes the process—the process of coming together, creating a learning environment, and working through issues, agendas and experiences. The second part identifies some of the key issues debated, discussed and analyzed during the Forum. They are the issues of theory, practice, steps, methods, methodology, the role of the facilitator, and others. The final part reproduces the case studies which the participants brought, shared, and discussed during the Forum.

Salmen, Lawrence F. 1987. Listen to the People: Participant-Observer Evaluation of Development Projects. Oxford University Press: New York.

This book is an account of the author's experience living among poor inhabitants of World Bank urban development projects in La Paz, Bolivia and Guayaquil, Ecuador. By viewing slum upgrading and new housing through the eyes of the people who live through it the author explains some of the project's failings and some unexpected benefits. The book testifies to the effectiveness with which the qualitative research technique -participant observation- can be applied in the context of economic development. The book describes the application of participant-observer evaluation through multiple case studies.

Wadsworth, Yolanda. 1991. Everyday Evaluation on the Run. Action Research Issues Association: Melbourne, Australia.

This short workbook is a practical account, well written and extremely readable. Provides an approach to evaluation based on participatory techniques. Written in much the same style as Do It Yourself Social Research (see below under participatory research).

Feminist Research

Bookman, Ann and Sandra Morgen (eds.). 1988. Women and the Politics of Empowerment. Temple University Press: Philadelphia, PA.

This book is a collection of feminist research projects discussing the intersection between race, gender and class as women participate in collective action. The researchers develop different forms of participatory models to conduct and carry out the research projects. The focus of all research strategies is on combining research, education, and action toward progressive social change in the lives of women and men.

Cancian, Francesca M. 1992. "Feminist Science: Methodologies that Challenge Inequality." Gender and Society. Vol. 6, No. 4, December: 623-642.

The author identifies one of the goals of feminist research as challenging inequality. Toward that end distinctive methods must be used such as combining social action with research and using participatory approaches to generate research results. Cancian finds that these approaches strengthen scientific standards of good evidence and open debate. But, since they also conflict with elitism and careerism in academia they are rarely used. She argues that to create non-hierarchical social structures within society we must use and foster non-hierarchical methods in doing our research. The author presents three exemplars of feminist research to illustrate the five features of feminist methodology: (1) addressing gender and inequality; (2) research based on experience; (3) action as a component of the research process; (4) a critique of traditional research methods; and (5) the use of participatory research methods.

Fonow, Mary M. and Judith A. Cook. 1991. Beyond Methodology: Feminist Scholarship as Lived Research. Indiana University Press: Bloomington.

This volume is an edited collection of papers on the philosophies and methods of feminist research. Raises key issues for consideration in all forms of research. The analysis focuses on feminist methodology in the field of sociology by surveying the techniques used in recent research concerning gender-related topics as well as feminist analyses of epistemological assumptions underlying the conduct of inquiry. The articles provide a critique and reformulation of standard research practice by using innovative methodological approaches including, visual techniques, conversational and textual analysis, and analysis of spontaneous events.

Hill Collins, Patricia. 1989. "The Social Construction of Black Feminist Thought." Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 14(41): 745-773.

This article outlines the contours of a black feminist way of knowing. The core features include: concrete experience as a criterion of meaning, a capacity for empathy, an ethic of caring, the use of dialogue in assessing knowledge claims, and the ethic of personal accountability. These features all converge with the values and methods of participatory research.

Lewis, Helen, et al. 1986. Picking Up the Pieces: Women in and out of Work in the Rural South. Highlander Research and Education Center: New Market, TN.

This book was developed from a 1984 Highlander workshop where 30 women of diverse race, ethnicity, age, and community backgrounds discuss their economic situations as individuals and within Southern communities. Their focus is to encourage other women to look at their own histories, to understand their own importance, and to work to change the dominant patterns of economic life for themselves and for other women.

Maguire, Patricia. 1987. Doing Participatory Research: A Feminist Approach. Center for International Education, University of Massachusetts: Amherst, MA.

This volume provides a complete description of how to do participatory research. The author describes a feminist and participatory project among Navajo women in a battered women's center. Using Paulo Friere's concept of dialogue, Maguire talks with former battered women in their kitchens, painstakingly transcribes the interviews, and hand the women their own words. Together they move through a cycle of reflection and action working towards a solution to their problem—How to move forward after the soul-destroying experiences of living with violent men. The volume contains a good bibliography and literature review of both feminist and participatory methods, and a valuable framework for feminist participatory research.

Smith, Dorothy. 1990. The Conceptual Practices of Power: A Feminist Sociology of Knowledge. Northeastern University Press.

Setting her analysis in the contexts of feminist theory, Marxism, the history of sociology, phenomenology, ethnomethodology and analyses of taken-for-granted political practices of individuals and organizations in late twentieth-century politics Smith recommends that research practitioners subvert contemporary practices of domination by rejecting the ideology of the disembodied researcher. She recommends an inquiry which is interested in and begins from a particular site in the world. Her argument is divided into four parts: an abbreviated statement of the theory that women's experience as the basis for an alternative sociology; the need to redefine ideology and knowledge in keeping with Marx's and feminist insight; the privileging of textual reality combined with the revolution in information technology makes traditional social research instruments of control and domination; and, it is the duty of sociologists to reveal the social relations that produce a given fact of the possibility of a fact as objective absolute. The last half of the book is a series of exemplars for describing, identifying and dissecting conceptual practices of power.

Waring, Marilyn. 1984. Counting for Nothing: What Men Value and What Women Are Worth. Allen and Unwin.

Waring puts human beings and human values into both national and international economics. Drawing from a political economic base she provides a critique and challenges the assumptions of male-centered economic theory and practice. Women's work fuels the economies of every country in the world. Yet no value is placed on this labor in the definitive system of national accounts used worldwide (e.g., Gross National Product). Using the concepts and thinking from feminist perspectives she explores the wide-ranging implications of discounting the work of half the world's women.

Participatory Research

Abreo, Desmond A, 1983. From Development Worker to Activist: A Case Study in Participatory Training. DEEDS: Mangalore, Karnataka

This book is a case study of training held for the members of a development organization in South India by the Development Education Service. The method used in the training programs is aimed at being totally participatory. The trainees evolve the syllabus, and through various exercises, arrive at the insights needed for authentic development work. The book describes this process as it took place in four weeks spaced out over the course of a year, and through the actual work of the trainees. The methods described include case studies, group and individual research, reflection on actual development work, role-plays, simulation exercises among others. Book is aimed at development workers in applied settings. Most of the sections contain the actual summaries made by the trainees themselves of their discussions. Additional papers given to the trainees for their reflection and group discussion are included where appropriate.

The American Sociologist. Winter, 1992, Vol. 23 (4) and Spring, 1993, Vol. 24 (1).

Convergence. 1981, Vol. 14(3) and 1988, Vol. 21(3)

Dubell, Folke. 1981. Research For the People, Research By the People. The Netherlands Study and Development Center for Adult Education: Amersfoot, Netherlands.

A collection of international papers on participatory research including science and the common people, the dynamics of participation in participatory research, the issue of methodology in participatory research, the socio-political implications of participatory research, and the epistemology of participatory research. The book also includes case studies on a women's movement in India, land ownership in Appalachia, rural training in traditional communities in Peru, the role of culture and development in Tanzania, and a trade union facing automation in Norway.

Fals-Borda, Orlando and Muhammad Anisur Rahman (eds.). 1991. Action and Knowledge: Breaking the Monopoly with Participatory Action Research. Apex Press: New York.

This volume is a collection of case studies and theoretical essays on the use of participatory research in communities world-wide. The well chosen articles provide an excellent overview of the different contexts and strategies used in participatory research. The authors use and describe different participatory research methods, but all share in common an approach to development which actively involves the people in generating their own knowledge, about their own condition, and how it can be changed.

Fals-Borda Orlando. 1985. Knowledge and People's Power: Lessons with Peasants in Nicaragua, Mexico and Columbia. Indian Social Institute: New Delhi, India.

This book defines and describes participatory research. Participatory research is seen as a tool for people's mobilization and developing people's organizations to support their struggles. Based on participatory action research in a number of Latin American countries, the authors have put together a methodology and variety of techniques for the production and dissemination of knowledge among the rural poor as a mode of empowering them. They find that participatory research is a mode of defending the interests of the rural poor. This relatively short book provides basic theoretical foundations, practical techniques and case studies of participatory research in action.

Fals-Borda, Orlando. 1982. "Participatory Research and Rural Social Change." Journal of Rural Cooperation, X(1): 25-39.

Forester, John, Jessica Pitt, and John Walsh (eds.). 1993. Profiles of Participatory Action Researchers. Einaudi Center for International Studies and Department of City and Regional Planning, Cornell University: Ithaca, NY.

The profiles of Participatory Action Researchers were produced by editing telephone interviews with university based PAR practitioners. The researchers tell in their own words about the projects they have worked on, their successes and failures as researchers and organizers, and the broader problems and promises of participatory action research. Provides excellent overview of PAR and its practitioners, and major issues around PAR. Interesting insight into the PAR methodological technique. Topical areas include: Organizational Change and Problem Solving; International Development and NGO's; Community Development; Local Planning and Urban Design. Excellent current source with a number of articles for information on PR for faculty, graduate students, undergraduates and community members. Good source for both those just beginning PAR or for those with a more advanced understanding.

Freire, Paulo. 1970. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Seabury Press: New York.

This book is based upon the experiences of author in teaching illiterate persons to read and also to articulate and act on their knowledge about social situations. Learning is seen as a political process, with the goal of "conscientization" or the articulation of a critical consciousness. The process emphasizes dialogue among participants and reciprocal relationships between teachers and students.

International Council for Adult Education. 1982. Participatory Research: An Introduction. Society for Participatory Research: Asia and New Delhi.

Kassam, Yusuf and Kemal Mustafa. 1982. Participatory Research: An Emerging Alternative Methodology in Social Science Research. Society for Participatory Research: New Delhi, India.

This book is a compilation of all the theoretical papers and case studies presented at the African Regional Workshop on Participatory Research, held in Tanzania in 1979. The book exemplifies the nature and level of analysis that is taking place on the concept, theory, and practice of participatory research among persons concerned with issues of research, adult education, popular knowledge, and power. The specific issues examined in this book, enlightened by concrete case studies of participatory research from Botswana, Kenya, and Tanzania, include the concepts of development in the social sciences, the politics of research methodology in the context of ideological struggles, epistemology, and the question of power social class, and historical materialism.

Maguire, Patricia. 1987. Doing Participatory Research: A Feminist Approach. Center for International Education, University of Massachusetts: Amherst, MA.

Rahman, Muhammad Anisur. 1993. People's Self Development: Perspectives on Participatory Action Research. Zed Books: London.

This monograph presents the eminent author's reflections on development through local initiatives by people themselves, what he terms "self-development," and how to promote such development. Key issues include: what does the notion of self reliance mean; an approach to participatory research in terms of the self emancipation of the popular classes; the importance of knowledge relations in the domination of people; an examination of the rationality of collectively generated popular knowledge; and an outline of an alternative development paradigm rooted in a perspective that sees fulfillment of the human urge for creative engagement as the primary task in development efforts.

Reason, Peter (ed.). 1995. Participation in Human Inquiry: Research With People. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.

This volume addresses both the theory and practice of participative inquiry. It explores a distinctive range of approaches to research— cooperative, collaborative, participatory, and experiential — which all share a concern with research as a collaborative process, or research with and for people, rather than on people. The first part of the book outlines a theoretical foundation for understanding participation and undertaking participatory research. It discusses the emergence of a worldview that is more holistic, pluralist, and egalitarian rather than the traditional western scientific perspective. The second section of the book presents examples of participative research in action with examples ranging from work with women’s groups, students, and health.

Reason, Peter. 1994. "Three Approaches to Participative Inquiry." In Denzin, Norman K. and Yvonna S. Lincoln. 1994. Handbook of Qualitative Research. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.

Tandon, Rajesh. 1993. "The Historical Roots and Contemporary Urges in Participatory Research." Participatory Research International (PRIA) Newsletter, December, 1993.

This brief explication which traces participatory research from an alternative paradigm to its present status as a viable method especially as relates to development. Cites seven contemporary trends influencing participatory research: new politics of science; linkage between ideology and education; feminist perspectives; ecological movement; developments in rural and indigenous peoples relations; new paradigm research; and the growth in applied participatory action research work.

Wadsworth, Yolanda. 1984. Do It Yourself Social Research. Victorian Council of Social Service and Melbourne Family Care Association: Melbourne, Australia.

This workbook on participatory research is an easy to read, step by step account, written primarily for lay researchers. The approach is based on participatory methods which puts the production of knowledge back into the hands of everyday people. Addresses issues such as reasons for the research, how to get started, ways of finding information and generating data, analyzing data, and ways of getting the findings across. Includes several case studies, a translation of common research language, and bibliography.

Social Geography

Dennison, Derek. 1994. "Defending the Land With Maps" World Watch. January/ February: 27-31.

In a brief article two case studies are used to demonstrate "participatory cartography" to help indigenous peoples maintain land against colonizers etc. The collaborators in the project use participatory research methods and collaborative research to redraw and redefine maps so indigenous understanding and geography is taken into account.

Paulston, Roland and Martin Liebman. 1993. "The Promise of a Critical Postmodern Cartography." Occasional Paper Series, Department of Administrative and Policy Studies, School of Education, University of Pittsburgh. August 1993. APS Conceptual Mapping Project, Research Report No. 2.

This paper demonstrates how, through the employment of a critical "social cartography" —the creation of maps addressing questions of location and power in the social milieu— social research can move to distance itself from positivistic restraints of modernism. Proposed that social cartography has the potential to be a useful discourse style for demonstrating the attributes and capacities, as well as the development and perceptions of people and cultures operating within the social milieu. It offers a new and effective method for visually demonstrating the sensitivity of postmodern influences for opening social dialogue, especially to those who have experienced disenfranchisement by modernism. Social cartography suggests not a synthesis, but the further opening of dialogue among diverse social players, including those individuals and cultural clusters who want their "mininarratives" included in the social discourse.

Smith, David M. 1994. Geography and Social Justice. Blackwell: Oxford.

The intention of the book is to take the basic problem of distributive justice, along with some related issues of morality, and see what can be make of this in a geographical context. The concern is with normative thinking: with how we conceive of what is right or wrong, better or worse, in human affairs lived out in geographical space. Provides a critical and accessible review of relevant issues in moral philosophy, in particular the contrasting claims of different theories of social justice, and the nature of rights and needs. These theoretical perspectives are then applied to case studies collected by the author. Topics cover: racial justice in the American South; inequality under socialism and its aftermath in Eastern Europe, and the prospects for social justice in post-apartheid South Africa among others. He then draws together the elements of theory and experience to present trenchantly argued conclusions on the justice of a market -led society, the ideals of egalitarianism, and the universality of the principles of justice.

Ways of Knowing—The Role of Indigenous Knowledge and Culture

Alasuutari, Pertti. 1995. Researching Culture: Qualitative Methods and Cultural Studies. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.

This volume explores how cultural studies transcends the traditional divisions between qualitative and quantitative method, and between the social sciences and the humanities. In this comprehensive text, the author introduces approaches and methodological tools available for undertaking critical and rigorous research. Three main methods are considered: the qualitative traditions in sociology and anthropology, including ethnography and symbolic interactionism; methods for studying images and languages, including semiotics, narrative analysis, conversational analysis, and discourse analysis; and the relevance of quantitative analysis to the kind of data produced by research on culture.

Chambers, Robert. 1983. Rural Development : Putting the Last First. Longman Scientific and Technical: Essex, England.

Beginning with an uncompromising position on the outrage at the extremes of rural poverty in the Third World, the author challenges preconceptions of the dominant mode of rural development. The central theme is that rural poverty is often unseen or misperceived by outsiders. Chambers contends that researchers and fieldworkers rarely appreciate indigenous knowledge in understanding the hidden nature of rural poverty. He argues for a new professionalism, with fundamental reversals in outsiders' learning, values and behavior, and proposes more realistic participatory action for tackling rural poverty.

Epstein, Steven. 1991. "Democratic Science? AIDS Activism and the Contested Construction of Knowledge." Socialist Review. 21(2), April-June: 35-64.

In this article Epstein accounts for the specific character of the U.S. AIDS movements' involvement with science. He shows how this involvement extends beyond the critique of authority or public policy and into the realm of scientific method and even epistemology. He then uses the example of the U.S. AIDS movement to raise questions about the prospects for a democratization of medical science. The struggle for democratization may be expressed in demands that scientific elites and institutions be responsive to community concerns, that the public should exercise greater participation in setting research priorities, that popular control should be established over the medical-industrial complex, or even that medical science should be reorganized to facilitate universal access. But AIDS activism adds a radical spin to the democratization of science. It maintains that grassroots activists, acting on equal footing with the credentialed experts, can participate in advancing knowledge about AIDS; and that lay spokespersons can attain a level of qualification that permits them to speak authoritatively about scientific theories, facts, and methods.

Fals-Borda, Orlando and Muhammad Anisur Rahman (eds.). 1991. Action and Knowledge: Breaking the Monopoly with Participatory Action Research. Apex Press: New York.

A collection of case studies and theoretical essays on the use of participatory research in communities world-wide. P